Business#2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Business#2 - Essay Example But this is not the case. For instance, while bribery is illegal in Indonesia, its public officials are susceptible to the act because the government pays them low wages. In a case study, Richard R. Gesteland, Georg F. Seyk (2002) documented: A foreign company headquartered in Singapore had to send technicians to Indonesian factories on a regular basis. About half of the company’s techs had to slip a fifty dollar bill to the Jakarta airport immigration official on duty in order to get an entry visa stamped in their passports. (p. 79) Sometimes cultural factors also come into play wherein norms in some countries dictate gift-giving or entertainment as important in transacting business. This is partly the reason why the degree as to which bribery is perceived as immoral is different from country to country. People who engage in bribery points to this fact, arguing that there is a blurry line between bribery and simple gift-giving: In the US, for instance, there are several kinds of payments that fall on the borderline of legality and illegality. In light of all these, bribery is customarily considered an unethical activity and, rightfully, the act is outlawed in all countries. (Donaldson & Dundee 1999, p. 225) No society can have the custom of bribery, because by its nature it is a covert practice that involves unfairness, harm to some and unearned benefit to others. Wojciech Gasparski and Leo Ryan (1996) stressed that bribery can never be justified as ethically proper because it is a means by which people get special treatment in preference to others for no other reason that that they pay bribes. (p. 332) Bribery corrupts both the giver and the receiver. Furthermore, it undercuts efficiency in the market, skews the allocation of goods and resources, often imposes unjust costs on third parties, and leads to further corruption, since such payments are not legal and cannot be reported using generally accepted accounting procedures. Today, the issue of

Ottawa Charter Influences Health Promotion

Ottawa Charter Influences Health Promotion In recent years there has been a growing expectation of new strategies concerning Health Promotion and a number of conferences have been held around the world. One such conference on Health Promotion was held on the 21st day of November 1986 in Ottawa. The objectives of the conference centred on the needs in industrialised countries, and their main concerns were the Declaration on Primary Health Care at Alma-Atta, the World Health Organisations targets for all document, and discussions at World Health Assembly regarding intersectoral actions for health as well as taking into accounts similar concerns in all other regions (WHO 1986). This assignment will explore the literature to assess whether the Ottawa Charter continues to influence the values and practice of health promotion in the 21st century. Discussions will include the concept of health and definition of Health Promotion, factors influencing health, approaches for promoting health and evaluation for health promotion practices against national guidelines. Health Promotion could be defined as a miscellaneous approach to encourage health related life-style behaviours within communities and individuals (Laverack 2007). The aims of Health Promotion, is to allow people to gain control over the determinants of health and thereby improving their health as well as the factors influencing it (WHO 1986, 2005). The most common definition of health, states that health is a state of complete physical, mental and social wellbeing and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity (WHO 1946). However, although this definition has been accepted widely as a holistic and positive explanation of health, it has been criticised for not considering the spiritual and emotional aspects of health (Eweles and Simnett 2003). According to Laverack (2007) the definition of health is subjective and depends entirely on the experiences and the life styles of a person and has become necessary that healthcare professionals should be aware of the fact that explanations of health are highly understood differently from one individual to the other with regards to issues militating against them such as self-esteem, social support, individual control and social status (Laverack 2007), so that in addressing health issues people should be ready to embrace and undertake interventions of health promotion to achieve realistic goals. The key issues influencing health predominantly include food, shelter, peace, income, education, a stable ecosystem, a sustainable resources, social justice and equity. These have been affirmed as the key fundamental human rights of an individual as emphasised in the Ottawa charter (WHO 1986). Above these health problems, poverty has been the source of danger to health (WHO 1997). Other factors that affect health indirectly are the global economy, financial market and trade, accessibility to media and communication technology as well as environmental degradation as a result of irresponsible way of using resources (WHO 1997). In order to address these issues to attain an ultimate goal and to increase a high level of health expectancy as well as to narrow the gap in health expectancy between countries and communities as a group, there should be the need to focus critically on the visions of The Jakarta Declaration on Health Promotion to derive a possible range of different resources to solve the health determinants in the 21st century. One way of attempting and influencing these values and practices is that, there should be a firm commitment to adopt a Health Promotion strategy that can influence changes in the lifestyles of countries or groups of people living in a geographical area and also changes that can affect the social, economic and environmental conditions that determine health. In order for the promotion of health to be effective, the Ottawa Charter has recognised three basic plans and these are; advocacy for health to create an atmosphere to achieve the essential conditions for health and this is designed to gain political commitment, policy support, social acceptance and systems support for a particular health goal (WHO, GENEVA, 1995). Secondly an enabling conditions for all people to achieve their full health potential and this is done by individuals or groups to empower them through the mobilization of human and material resources, to promote and protect their health through partnership and thirdly to mediate between the different groups and the pursuit of health (WHO, GENEVA, 1984). In view of these three basic strategies, there should be a collaborative effort to arrest these health problems globally, due to its depth and breaths of the issues at stack (Scriven 2005). According to Scriven (2005) this is going to prevent duplication and enable the development of strategies involving political, economic and policy initiatives that address the complexity of health determinants. The WHO (2005) affirms that the on- going initiatives towards a healthier world will need a strong political action, broad participation and sustained advocacy. For a long time past a number of important policies have been developed by the WHO in order to make this happen. The Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion which has become the most significant milestone in history today (WHO 1986), also gave birth to the progress that brought about the Declaration of Alma-Ata (WHO 1978). At this conference there was a proposal for the need for health promotion action to: Develop healthy public policy, Create supportive environments, Strengthen community action, Develop personal skill, Re -orientate health services and Move into the future (WHO 1986). Regardless of the policies formulated at the global level, the Bangkok Charter for Health Promotion in a Globalized World (WHO 2005) put forward for consideration the values, principles and action strategies of health promotion established by the Ottawa charter (WHO 1986). The Bangkok Charter recognizes actions, commitments and pledges required to address the determinants of health in a globalised world through health promotion (WHO 2005). Its focus is the need to: Advocate for health based on human rights and solidarity, Invest in sustainable policies, actions and infrastructure to address the determinants of health, Build capacity for policy development, leadership, health promotion practice, knowledge transfer and research, and health literacy, Regulate and legislate to ensure a high level of protection from harm and enable equal opportunity for the health and wellbeing for all. In view of the prospective that global policies of Bangkok and Ottawa charters have to implement to achieve global health and offset the health damaging problems world- wide, reality does not always reflect that actions. For example, according to WHO (2005) since the implementation of the Ottawa Charter, a substantial number of resolutions both globally and national level have been signed in support of health promotion, but these actions have not been followed (WHO 2005). There is a persistent gap between policy knowledge at a global level and policy implementation at country level (Magnusson 2007). This explains that the efforts of policy makers and the potential benefits of globalisation are wasted. The implementation gap should be closed if improving global health is to become a reality (WHO 2005). Despite the implementation and the adoption of the policies proposed in the Ottawa Charter couple with reflections to other series of conferences held globally in the promotion of health, and in addition to different health promotion strategies and the adherence to the values and practices of health promotion, it has become very challenging and impossible to maintain the values and practices set up in the Ottawa charter to achieve the basic fundamental human right towards this 21st century. This is because the world is being confronted with different types of man- made and natural disasters such as wars, earthquake, bush-fires, widespread of pandemic diseases in the disadvantage areas of the world and global warming. Typical of these disasters are the recent floods in Pakistan which started in July this year which inflicted about  £5.9 million in damage to properties, crops and infrastructure and has left more than ten million people homeless and affected about 20 million and devas tated the economy according to world bank report and in addition to these problems the government is persistently confronted with how to tackle the political tensions in the system such as Muslim militant, suicide bombing, tight budget and the endemic corruption that goes on in government institutions (Ahmed 2010). These problems have made it unrealistic for the values and practice of health promotion achievable towards the 21st century. What can be done is that, globalisation poses a threat to the health of the worlds population, but it also presents opportunities. Enhanced interconnectivity, including technology and communications, which means that it is easier for countries to work together to tackle the determinants of health. Policies developed at a global level, such as those of the WHO, can promote health provided that they are implemented judiciously. Countries can face the challenge of globalisation by being supported and prepared through relevant policies, research and education. Countries should embrace globalisation and exploit its benefits for promotion of health care across the world (Seloilwe 2005). This implies that countries have responsibility as individuals in relation to globalisation. The health profile of the world is changing and this has an impact on Health Promotion. The implication is that countries now need to think more globally. This might reasonably begin with an understanding of the nat ure of globalisation and its implications for Health Promotion. Word Count: 1,578

Avatar Essay -- Film Review

Myths are supernatural or religious tales with cultural and historical backgrounds, often containing moral lessons that are valued by the culture they originated from. The movie Avatar is a modern myth, its popularity stemming from the inspiration it draws from familiar and widespread themes found in classical myths. Avatar reuses and refreshes these themes for current audiences. Ancient stories such as those of Icarus, Prometheus, Gilgamesh, and Hercules, as well as contemporary issues, represent many of the same themes that are revealed in Avatar. Avatar is the story of Jake Sully, a paraplegic marine that is sent to the world Pandora to take the place of his dead-brother's job as a Na’vi avatar pilot. The humans on Pandora use these avatars to communicate with the Na’vi and try to convince them to leave the Hometree, which is the pillar of life for the Na’vi; the humans want this so they can mine the element â€Å"unobtanium† the majority of which is located under Hometree. Jake initially pilots the avatar to achieve the military objectives that he is given, but over the course of the movie becomes initiated into the Na’vi culture through Neytiri and begins to disregard his orders. When the military commander finds out of Jake’s treason he gives the order to destroy Hometree and Jake is forced to reveal to the Na'vi his true intentions for piloting the avatar. This results in Jake being cast out of both the Na’vi and human societies. The humans then destroy the Hometree and man y of the Na’vi, Jake realizes that it is up to him to save the rest of the Na’vi and leads the resistance. To regain the trust of the Na’vi, Jake tames a Toruk, the most feared predator on Pandora. Through Jake’s leadership the Na’vi push back the humans and... ...is often seen as an invasion since many cities and innocent lives have been destroyed through this process. The outcome of this war is still being determined but based on the patterns of politics portrayed classical myths and Avatar it is clear that both sides will be greatly affected by the conflict. Avatar has been mocked as being highly derivative of other films and stories, but that merely shows how deep these same themes run in human psyche. Even in ancient times, the legends and tales contained similar issues and their heroes went through similar trials, showing just how important these things are to us as a race. The anxiety of doing too much and becoming too powerful is as widespread today as it was thousands of years ago. No matter the consequences we may face, humans will always try to reach just a little higher, and try to gain just a little more power.

Crude Oil Price Volatility Economics Essay

Energy plays the cardinal function in the universe economic system. In malice of considerable disposition to alternative renewable beginnings of energy like air current, H2O, atomic and solar power, the function of rough oil in macroeconomic motions has non waned yet ( Mehrara & A ; Mohaghegh, 2011 ) . Since the find and production of oil Nigeria in 1958, the subsector has continued to play a major and dominant function in the Nigerian economic system. The extractive sector in the Nigerian economic system is big and extended, with oil playing a critical function. With about 37.2 billion barrels in militias and 2.13 % of planetary production, Nigeria has the universe ‘s 10th largest proven militias ( 3.1 % of planetary militias ) , and is among the top 10 oil manufacturers ( Akinlo, 2012 ) . Nigeria has been a member of the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries ( OPEC ) since July 1971. Presently, there are 12 member states including Nigeria in this international organisation whose purpose of the organisation, harmonizing to its Statute, is the finding of the best agencies for safeguarding their involvements, separately and jointly ; inventing ways and agencies of guaranting the stabilisation of monetary values in international oil markets with a position to extinguishing harmful and unneeded fluctuations ; giving due respect at all times to the involvements of the bring forthing states and to the necessity of procuring a steady income to the bring forthing states ; an efficient, economic and regular supply of crude oil to devouring states, and a just return on their capital to those puting in the crude oil industry ( OPEC, 2012 ) . Crude Oil is an of import trade good non merely because it is of course happening in the Earth but because of the many fractions that are derived from it after the refinement procedure. Those changing fractions such as fuel oil, jet fuel, kerosine etc. are extracted at different temperatures during the refinement procedure. The demand for rough oil is derived from the demand for its fractions and it depends on a big figure of factors such as its class, sulfur content and its locations. Crude Oil is classified in the international market harmonizing to changing molecular features by giving pricing mentions to the countries where such barrels are produced. Such pricing mentions include the North American West Texas Intermediate, Nigerian Bonny Light, Brent etc. In most oil exporting states, authorities which is well big in comparing with little private sector, straight receives the oil gross. Spending this gross, authorities ‘s behaviour becomes the most of import feature of the economic system. In other words, the financess needed for authorities ‘s outgo come from oil gross. So, financial and pecuniary policies depend upon oil monetary value ( Rosser & A ; Sheehan, 1995 ) . Oil monetary value is extremely variable ; even more than any other trade good ( Dehn, 2001 ) . Crude oil monetary values have increased on norm from US $ 25 per barrel in 2002 to US $ 55 per barrel in 2005. There has been a steep upward tendency in the monetary value of rough oil in recent old ages, making a record nominal high of US $ 147 in mid-2008 and a crisp bead to US $ 46 a barrel ( Akpan, 2009 ) . The transmittal mechanisms through which oil monetary values have impact on existent economic activity include both supply and demand channels. The supply side effects are related to the fact that rough oil is a basic input to production, and accordingly an addition in oil monetary value leads to a rise in production costs that induces houses to take down end product. Oil monetary value alterations besides entail demand-side effects on ingestion and investing. Consumption is affected indirectly through its positive relation with disposable income. Oil monetary value rises cut down the consumers passing power. Investing may besides be affected if the oil monetary value daze encourages manufacturers to replace less energy intensive capital for more energy-intensive capital. The magnitude of this consequence is in bend stronger the more the daze is perceived to be durable. For this ground, the theoretical literature has been of a general equilibrium nature, with different writers delega ting different weights to the supply and demand channels ( Olomola & A ; Adejumo, 2006 ) . When oil monetary value depreciates, big public sector expectedly can non cut down its disbursement instantly and proportionally ; so faces immense shortages. The financial instabilities followed by an oil monetary value lessening can be lay waste toing if the state is extremely dependent on oil grosss ; which is the instance in most oil exporting states. More disappointingly such falls are normally unpredictable. Several uncomplete undertakings and immense debts are the chief heritages of this period for the undermentioned fruitful epoch. After some rough experiences, presents, insulating the existent sectors of economic system from oil monetary value volatility is accepted as one of the most of import functions of authorities ( Mehrara & A ; Mohaghegh, 2011 ) . Presently, one-year budgets are formulated in Nigeria based on oil monetary values. The 2009 budget was revised in line with the predominating market monetary value of oil declarative mood of immense dependance of Nigeria on oil returns. In 2012, there was an intense argument refering the benchmark monetary value of Crude Oil that would be the footing of gross and outgo computations in the passing of the 2013 Appropriation Act ( budget ) through the Nigerian National Assembly. Huge influx of oil grosss in Nigeria are more frequently associated with enlargement in the degree of Government passing while periods of dwindling oil grosss are normally accompanied by budget shortages. There is no addition stating that Nigeria relies so much on gross from oil exports, but, it every bit massively imports refined crude oil and other related merchandises. Evidence, for case, shows that Government disbursement, which hitherto, before 1999 remained good below N0.5 trillion, hit N1.02 trillion grade in 2001 and N1.5 trillion in 2004. The figures for 2006 and 2007 stood at N2.04 and N2.45 trillion severally ( Aliyu, 2009 ) . Oil monetary value dazes are preponderantly defined with regard to monetary value fluctuations ensuing from alterations in either the demand or supply side of the international oil market ( Hamilton, 1983 ) . These alterations have been traditionally traced to provide side breaks such as OPEC supply quotas, political turbulences in the oil-rich Middle East and activities of hawkish groups in the Niger Delta part of Nigeria. The dazes could be positive ( a rise ) or negative ( a autumn ) . Two issues are identified sing the dazes ; foremost is the magnitude of the monetary value addition which can be quantified in absolute footings or as per centum alterations, second is the timing of the daze, that is, the velocity and continuity of the monetary value addition ( Akpan, 2009 ) . Traveling by the foregoing, four oil dazes can be observed in Nigeria. Each of the dazes had connexions with some motions in cardinal macroeconomic variables in Nigeria. For case, the 1973-74, 1979-80, and 2003-2006 periods were associated with monetary value additions while the oil market prostration of 1986 is an episode of monetary value lessening. During the first oil daze in Nigeria ( 1973-74 ) , the value of Nigeria ‘s export measured in US dollars rose by about 600 per cent with the footings of trade lifting from 18.9 in 1974 to 65.3 by 1982. Government gross which stood at 8 per cent of GDP in 1972 rose to about 20 per cent in 1975. This resulted in increased authorities outgo owing mostly from the demand to monetise the rough oil grosss. Investing was mostly in favor of instruction, public wellness, conveyance, and import replacing industries ( Nnnanna & A ; Masha, 2003 ) . During the oil monetary value daze of 2003-2006, Nigeria recorded addition in the portion of oil in GDP from approximately 80 per cent in 2003 to 82.6 per cent in 2005. The daze was gradual and persisted for a piece. This could be regarded as a lasting daze. The consequence of the daze was a favorable investing clime, increased national income within the period although a little diminution was observed in the growing rate of the GDP. Despite this sensed benefit of oil monetary value alteration, the macroeconomic environment in Nigeria during the roars was unwanted. For case, rising prices was largely dual figure in the 1970s ; money supply grew steeply, while immense financial shortages were besides recorded ( Akpan, 2009 ) . The growing way of the state has been really unsmooth over the old ages. During the oil roar epoch, approximately 1970-78, GDP grew positively by 6.2 per centum yearly – a singular growing. However, in the 1980s, GDP had negative growing rates. In the period 1988-1997 which constitutes the period of Structural Adjustment Programme ( SAP ) , which entails economic liberalisation, the GDP responded to economic accommodation policies and grew at a positive rate of 4.0 per centum. Agriculture, industry and fabrication, oil and gas sectors had greater laterality in the composing of the Nigeria ‘s GDP. The twelvemonth 1989 – 1998 was the most disruptive period in the history of the state ‘s growing form. Real GDP grew merely by an norm of 3.6 per centum, against the population growing rate of 2.8 % during the same period. Inflation, poorness, exchange rate were all at dismaying rates. Foreign direct investing, which is a necessary engine of growing, was stifled be cause of unsupportive enabling environment. Between 1999 and 2008, the state ‘s growing public presentation improved significantly. GDP growing rate averaged 7.8 % during the decennary entirely due to the growing of non-oil sector which grew by 9.5 per centum. In this respect, nevertheless, oil sector constitutes both a retarding force on growing and a beginning of instability in GDP growing form ( Aliyu, 2009 ) . Ongoing financial and pecuniary reforms aim to cut down the degree of rough oil dependence but at the minute, uncertainnesss about the degree of rough oil monetary values has cost the economic system a batch of investing chances over the old ages. In order for Nigeria to achieve balanced, uninterrupted and sustainable economic growing, the consequence of volatility in oil monetary values must be given equal attending.STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEMIn Nigeria, the rate of petroleum oil dependence is high. It accounted for about 82.1 % of entire authorities gross during the oil roar in 1974 before cut downing to a portion of 64.3 % by which was a effect of the rapid diminution in universe market monetary value of rough oil. The portion of oil gross in entire authorities gross still remains significant as evidenced by the attainment of 85.6 % and 86.1 % in 2004 and 2005 severally ( Akpan,2009 ) . This has generated a batch of involvement particularly amongst stakeholders in the Nigerian econom ic system. Of recent, is the argument in the Nigerian National Assembly about the appropriate petroleum oil monetary value benchmark to be included in the 2013 Appropriation Act which has generated a batch of contention. From a planning position, fluctuations in the petroleum oil monetary value have been the beginning of a batch of incomplete authorities undertakings due to the alterations in the gross watercourse and the dependability of cost estimations. The transmittal mechanisms through which rough oil monetary values impact on existent economic activity and analysing the dynamic interrelatedness among the selected macroeconomic variables is of great importance. Variations in rough oil monetary values hinders effectual economic planning and development most particularly for rough oil dependent economic systems like Nigeria. The impact of these fluctuations in footings of magnitude, continuance and way is of great importance if the Nigerian economic system must come on. The following are inquiries refering to the impact of rough oil monetary value volatility in Nigeria: – How significantly can Crude Oil Price fluctuations hinder sustainable economic growing in Nigeria? What magnitude of the alterations in macroeconomic variables is associated with fluctuations in rough oil monetary value?1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDYThe wide aim of this survey is to analyse the consequence of petroleum oil monetary value volatility on economic activity in Nigeria. The specific aims include: a. To analyse the consequence of oil monetary value volatility on the growing rate of existent GDP, Inflation rate, Money supply and other financial and pecuniary variables. B. To find whether there is a long tally relationship between oil monetary value volatility and existent GDP growing in Nigeria. 1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS The inquiries that guide the research are as follows: a. Is there a important relationship between Oil monetary value dazes and economic system activity in Nigeria? B. What is the magnitude of the relationship ( if any ) between Oil monetary value dazes and macroeconomic variables in Nigeria?1.5 HYPOTHESES OF STUDYThe followers are the research hypotheses to be tested during the survey: Holmium: Crude Oil Price has no important consequence on economic activity in Nigeria. H1: Crude Oil Price has a important consequence on economic activity in Nigeria.1.6 SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDYThis survey on the consequence of volatile economic activity may be relevant to all states in the universe but the overall considerations, analysis and deductions are within the model of the Nigerian economic system. This survey covers the periods from 1975 to 2011. However, restrictions due to unavailability and undependability of informations could originate in the class of the survey and this should non be overlooked.1.7 DEFINITION OF UNFAMILIAR TERMSThe undermentioned footings used during the survey are explained below: a. Volatile: Care to change frequently or widely B. Organization of Petroleum-Exporting Countries ( OPEC ) : An organisation of states formed in 1961 to hold on a common policy for the production and sale of crude oil. Its members include Iraq, Indonesia, Iran, Kuwait, Libya, Angola, Algeria, Nigeria, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, and Venezuela.1.8 SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDYThis survey is of import to demo the extent to which the Nigerian economic system is affected by rough oil by analyzing macroeconomic variables. It is necessary to understand the way, continuance and magnitude of the relationship.1.9 METHODOLOGYThe variables to be considered include: a. Oil Price Variance B. Real Gross Domestic Product Growth Rate c. Inflation Rate d. Index of Industrial Production e. Money Supply f. Government Outgo The clip period under consideration is 1975-2011. The Ordinary Least Square Method is used because it is the best linear indifferent calculator. Garch ( 1,1 ) theoretical account is used to mensurate rough oil monetary value volatility and the conditional discrepancy series generates the volatility informations. Johansen Co-Integration technique based on vector autoregressive theoretical account determines the long tally relationship between oil monetary value fluctuations and GDP growing. Vector Error Correction Model ( VECM ) specifies convergence or divergency among the variables in the theoretical account. Trials for Stationarity ( being of unit roots ) such as the augmented dickey-fuller and Phillip Perron Tests will be employed. Variance decomposition, impulse response map, farmer causality trial examines consequence of Oil Price volatility on other variables.1.10 DATA BeginningsSecondary informations beginnings from Central Bank Statistical Database, Central Bank Statistical B ulletin, OPEC Statistical Bulletin British Petroleum Statistical Review of World Energy.1.11 OUTLINE OF CHAPTERS

Criminal and Gang Members Anonymous Essay

Criminal and Gang members Anonymous is a program which involves a 12 step established by Richard Mejico. Criminals and Gang members Anonymous is a dogmatic and a non-profit organization whose primary aim is to help individuals who are honestly willing to quit gang involvement. The organization chief objective is to help criminals and gang members who honestly want to quit from gang and other criminal activities. They offer an alternative lifestyle free of illegal and violent activities through 12 step principles of recovering from devastating addictions. The organization is driven by their principal goal and welcomes all interested members to quit dreadful effects of gang operations. The organization acknowledges that gang involvement is intertwined to other compelling and addictive habits. The gang involvement may be addictive since they may be in form of co-dependency or in form of chemical dependence. The organization achieve to help these members to abandon from gang activities by helping them identify the magnetic force of gang manipulation that initiates compelling actions that have repugnant results. CGA members are addicted to destructive activities including hard drugs. These members have experienced a lot and they recognize that the end results of gang operations and destructive behavior is physical impairment, incarceration or death. Their wish is to help gang members abandon these addictive criminal activities and help restructure their communities rather than destruction. The following 12 steps of CGA will help these gang members quit from devastating past and lead decent lives. Reviewing the pat and admitting lack of guts to control addiction from any form of illegal activity which make life unmanageable and worthless. Become willing and believe that change is possible by learning from ex-gang members who have passed the path of recovery by learning the end results of destructive behaviors. Deciding to abandon destructive behaviors in exchange of moral principles and seeking God’s care, guidance and protection. Thorough review of the past, making a list of the right and wrong deeds and make reform strategies. Seeking forgiveness from God, ourselves and people around as well as confessing our illegal activities to a trusted person. Make personal commitment of abandoning illegal behaviors and focus on living manageable and decent lives through moral principles. Honest recognition of the shortcomings whenever bad thinking comes up and immediately rectifying our actions and thinking. Making a thorough list of all the destructive actions, realize the impact of gang activities in our lives and become fully committed to undergo reform. Asking for forgiveness from the people who were harmed and avoiding causing more harm. Admitting to take daily records of the behavior and have courage to admit the wrong. Seeking to improve spiritual awareness through mediation and prayer and asking for forgiveness and guidance in living decent lives, being responsible and caring for others. Realizing spiritual awakening by implementing the 12 steps and share first hand experience to other people who are willing to quit gang activities, assuring them that change is possible and living appropriately. Richard was sentenced to death for murder case in the Mule Creek prison. He was a hard core gang member, but he learnt a lot from Big Book of Alcoholics Anonymous. He was given this book by a nun who visited him and changed his way of thinking and living. The book helped him to understand that change was possible and the teachings could be applied to criminals. Richard started to change other inmates and started CGA in 1997. The growth of youth gang and gang violence is being experienced in the modern society. There is an approximate of 3000 gangs with around 800000 gang members in America. Professionals are researching for appropriate strategies of saving the youths from gang crimes. The youths usually get involved in gang activities since they believe there are no alternative lifestyles. Building trust is one of the major barriers towards assisting the youth to abandon these gang activities. In order to get helped these criminals must acknowledge that they are addicted to these des tructive behaviors. These criminals and gang members should also understand the end results of their actions which will help them to take necessary measures. Gang and criminal activities are deeply rooted to a twisted way of thinking. Criminals and gang members think that the advice and opinions from others are inappropriate. They tend to talk more, but they never say what they feel. Their true friendship is basically with addictive behavior, illegal activity or chemical substance. They tend to think that going to school is less significant and reject fundamental principles of success. Principles of success help people to learn on how to live. The existence of gang members and criminals is characterized with confusion and anger thus they tend to seek gratification and relief from alcohol and drugs as well as being violent to others without any valid reason. They only feel life to revolve around them, their needs and wants and never consider other people’s feelings and opinions. They think they are hunters, yet they are hunted since they rarely find peace and harmony. These gangs and criminals have come to realize that change is pos sible and has chosen to undertake reform programs. Organizations and rescue centers have been founded to enhance radical transformation of the gangs and criminals as well as society’s attitudes toward the offenders. They also encourage the society to have positive attitude towards treatment of these offenders (Alexander, 2000). Homeboy industries is an organization that was formed to transform the live of offenders. They serve risky ex-gang members by offering free services and programs and also operate several social enterprises which serve as job-training centers. In 1972, Soledad Enrichment Action Inc. was found. Soledad Enrichment Action Inc. is a non-organization that was found by mothers who had lost their loved ones in gang violence.SEA has grown from a humble beginning to a famous service provider to high risk people, gang victim communities and families around Southern California. SEA main objective is to empower families, youth and communities by providing them with resources, guidance and support. SEA currently operates seventeen education centers, where they provide alternative education model to families and the youths. Their education program is personalized and hence enables high-risk persons to earn high school diploma. SEA admits an estimate of 3500 students per year who are the age of 14-1 8. SEA has a 77% successful completion due to their intense focus and rigorous standards. SEA provide intervention, civic engagement, reintegration, and support to victims of crime. SEA’s holistic program encourage individuals to learn to become better parents, accessing social services, gain employment, live successful lives, and completing high school education. SEA works with victims by helping them realize their potential, where they are, and help them to create a success path. SEA uses a multi-faceted approach to succeed in their objectives. The L.A. gang violence prevention and intervention program to be held in 2014 is focused in determining the initial cause of gang violence and come up with resolutions to combat those causes. Research reveals that social determinants and multiple environmental impacts push young youth into gang involvement. These factors include; poverty, early childhood trauma, addiction to the lifestyle, structural racism, traumatized communities, parenting as well as violent culture in the community. Abuse which includes substance abuse, sexual abuse and mental health might also be causal factors to gang involvement. Change should start from within rather than expecting others to initiate change. However, many people confuse the world change with system change because they believe that it is challenging for an individual or a single organization to transform the entire system. Another organization that transforms lives of offenders is Californians for Safety and justice. Californians for Safety and Justice is a nonprofit oriented organization which works with Californians from different walks of life to replace justice and prison system waste in general reforms that create a conducive community. Through partnership, public education, public advocacy as well as support to local best practices, California for safety and justice is able to promote effective criminal justice objective aimed at preventing cycles of crime and enhancing a peaceful community. Californians for Safety and Justice has a network of more than 5800 crime victims. The organization coagulate community and business leaders, law enforcement, health professionals, policymakers, crime prevention professionals and educators to replace expensive, old fashioned approaches of conducting business using latest justice priorities that advance public safety without depleting resources from social amenities. Californians for Safety and Justice is greatly supported by other foundations with similar objectives. Beit T’Shuvah is another residential and treatment center. Their services include family counseling, support, prevention programs, professional training and court advocacy to the community. The treatment admission programs that Beit T’shuvah offers include sex addiction, drug addiction, gambling addiction, alcohol addictions and other violent behaviors to male and females. The mission of rescue and reform centers is to strengthen and unify voices of individuals and other members of the organizations who are committed to abandon the epidemic of gang violence through provision of resources, education and policy advocacy. These gang and criminals wish to abandon destructive behaviors since they acknowledge that they jeopardize community health, build up and initiate health inequalities. There is relationship between gang, drugs, firearm violence and firearm accessibility. There is high prevalence of gun violence and homicide in many European countries. In order to combat gang and criminal activity, it is vital to understand the role of drugs and gangs in enhancing violence. Acknowledging the trend and reasons behind gun violence increase especially among youthful gangs has become an issue of concern. Governments have designed and implemented various policies aimed at reducing gun violence, however, some pose more harm than good. The increased gang violenc e can be associated by the increase in urban street gangs. Most firearm homicide cases have been associated to wars among groups of youth and gangs who are involved in the drug activities (Alexander, 2000). The ex-gang members explain how gang destructive behavior is associated to gun availability and drugs. Participation in gangs increases the probability of the youths getting involved in guns. Violence is a complex issue which governments are unable to control through regulation to gun access. The limits to private ownership of firearms aim at cutting down the access of firearms by the offenders. However, the criminals still access firearms from black markets. Richard Mejico, the founder of CGA recognized that his glory was destructive thus he started the mission of requesting his fellow prisoners to abandon gangs and prison lives. The organization is also likely to cut down crime outside the prison. On September 21st, the officials held 65 corrections and politicians in a forum set for CGA. This forum aimed at spreading the organization. Mejico and at least 30 robbers, rapists, and killers testified how the program had changed their lives. Mejico criticized people’s view of ga ng members; he said that they have fear and all they need is love from the society. They should not be asked about what they have done since that is their past rather people should focus on helping them to reform. They can learn to love the same way they learn violent behaviors. Retrieved from http://www.gblc.se/2013/11/16/seeking-freedom-from-gangs-grip-criminals-and-gangmembers-anonymous-19253584 CGA program has spread since its humble beginning at Mule Creek in 1997, where inmates are transferred to other prisons. Mejico’s objective is to inspire others to spread the program in schools, communities and prisons. He also added that he did not start the organization for recognition, but because it saved his life. Mule Creek spokesperson said that Mejico served two years imprisonment for killing a man who defiled his girlfriend. Two months later, Mejico committed another murder for his group in Los Angeles. This was a double murder and he was sent to death line. In the prison, he gained reputation as the Mexican mafia due to other gang members’ loyalty. A nun regularly visited him at San Quentin State prison and pestered him to abandon gang activities. He usually listened but he never changed until the Supreme Court ruled out that his death sentence be changed into life imprisonment in 1978. He also acknowledged that change is strategic and not immediate. Mejico st udied degree in psychology in San Jose University. Alcoholics Anonymous program is another field that he pursued, but it did not touch his issues. He came to understand how he developed hatred since his girlfriend was raped. He came to understand that his hatred was initiated by emotions rather than any reason. The first step for the people undertaking the program is to admit that their lives are not manageable. Then they should research on what propelled their deviance, look for divine growth and formulate amendments with victims. In a meeting at Mule Creek prison, prisoners testified of how their youthful pains initiated violent crimes. One of the prisoner by the name Willie, spoke of how his hate for his abusive and often abusive dad. His father’s meekness propelled him to kill to get behind bars. Willie also stabbed a man in the prison. He also admitted of how he was addicted to destructive behavior. Mejico said that the resentment force driving violent actions should not be an escape goat. Being honest and humble with one self and cutting short the false comfort of gangs or crime is very significant to achieving transformation. Mejico acknowledge that there is additional tranquility for the potential victims who are undertaking the program. A 26 year old prisoner, Joey Ray Lucero who pleaded guilty for attempted murder came to learn that gang life is wrong. While serving his sentence at Mule Creek prison, he joined CGA and he is currently helping potential victims to abandon their destructive behavior. He is also undertaking lectures at East Los Angels College where he also joined football club. Lucero said that he was raised in San Diego as a third-generation member of a gang in his neighborhood. His peers were heroin addicts where he was shown to be loyal to show no pain to the gang. Lucero said, â€Å"†You spend all those years fighting for a street corner or number or color that isn’t yours, lot of bloodshed – five, six generations – for what?† He regrets he cannot pay a visit to his old neighborhood because of the fear of being killed for betraying his gang members. On the other side he is happy since the CGA program had completely changed his life. Mejico believes that he can spre ad the program through CGA website and writing letters to the public as well as other potential victims. He also said that offenders should speak out their problems so that they won’t harm anybody. He also asked people to support his mission since he is still serving his life sentence. Retrieved from http://www.gblc.se/2013/11/16/seeking-freedom-from-gangs-grip-criminals-and-gangmembers-anonymous-19253584 In conclusion, CGA is a very significant program that helps offenders to understand that being courageous is not characterized by actions of violence to earn praise from the gang members. True courage can be defined as the act of doing what is right and best to ourselves. It is the ability of refusing being manipulated by other and taking positive direction to achieve decent and manageable lives. Gang and criminal activities is an addictive behavior and should be addressed just like any other epidemic. The first step towards transformation is for the potential victims to realize that their lives are unmanageable followed by identifying what initiated their deviance. This will help them seek spiritual growth and in making amendments with other victims. The offenders should also believe that change is possible; however, it is gradual rather than immediate. References Seeking freedom from gangs’ grip – Criminals and Gangmembers Anonymous . (n.d.). http://www.gblc.se/. Retrieved May 12, 2014, from http://www.gblc.se/2013/11/16/seeking-freedom-from-gangs-grip-criminals-and-gangmembers-anonymous-19253584 Alexander, R. (2000). Counseling, treatment, and intervention methods with juvenile and adult offenders. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning. Promising and model crime prevention programs. (2008). Ottawa: National Crime Prevention Centre. Violence Prevention Coalition of Greater Los Angeles – Who We Are. (n.d.). Violence Prevention Coalition of Greater Los Angeles – Who We Are. Retrieved May 12, 2014, from http://new.vpcgla.org/who-we-are Source document

Spatial Differences Between Males and Females

Spatial Differences Between Males and Females Free Online Research Papers Although many studies have been conducted on interpersonal distance throughout history, it remains uncertain how it should be defined. The Dictionary of Psychology defines interpersonal distance as the distance that people select to separate their ‘bubble’ of personal space from one or more other individuals (Corsini, 1999). This definition appears vague and does not address what usually happens through the invasion of one’s personal space. According to Hayduk (1978), personal space would be â€Å"the area individual humans actively maintain around themselves into which others cannot intrude without arousing discomfort† (p. 118). Altman (1975) has noticed that each definition has four properties. First, it has an invisible boundary separating ourselves from others. Second, it would be literally connected to the self. Third, the invisible boundary adjusts to different situations. Fourth, if someone infringes upon our personal space, it could result in anxiety or stress (Altman, 1975). As Corsini (1999) mentioned, it has often been described as an invisible ‘bubble’ encircling a person (Hayduk, 1983). Despite this common description, Hayduk (1983) believed the bubble analogy was insufficient and misleading. He explained that the bubble analogy does not portray the degree of resistance accompanying intrusion effectively. The misleading aspect was derived from the fact that two bubbles repel one another when pushed together, but when two people got close to each other, their bodies would move, not their personal spaces. Furthermore, bubbles consist of a circular shape and remain the same size until they are ruptured. Personal space remains flexible and it can change depending on the surroundings and specific situations. That being said, the research on personal space has been vast (Hayduk, 1983). Personal space has been studied in conjunction with a multitude of variables such as age (Yagoda, 1982; Remland, 1995), race (Brown, 1981; Carifio, 1987), cultural differences (Aono, 1980; Beaulieu, 2004; Six, 1983), mental disorders (Nechamkin, 2003; Beekman, 1986), the menstrual cycle (O’Neal, Schultz, Christenson, 1987) and sex (Buchanan, Goldman, Juhnke, 1977; Schwarzwald, Kavish, Shoham, Waysman, 1977). Most of the research has been limited in analyzing merely sex and interpersonal distance. Sex differences have often been considered secondary since researchers tend to include other variables that make it difficult to determine cause and effect. This has been due to the fact that most researchers have not been specifically interested in sex differences, but included them in their research anyway (Altman, 1975). Although sex has been oversimplified and misinterpreted as unimportant when studying interpersonal distance, it continues to be a relevant factor. Hayduk (1983) explains that part of the problem has been that we expect sex to have simple effects because there would only be two values to interpret. This has been a misconception because sex should not be seen as a simple dichotomy (Hayduk, 1983). Altman (1975) and Hayduk (1983) both agreed that sex differences need to be understood by observing whether a male or female was approaching a male or female. As a result, there should be four possible values instead of two values. Another important factor would be to determine the relative positions of each individual (Fisher Byrne, 1975; Hayduk, 1983). Males appear to be more comfortable with adjacent spatial positions and females appear to be more comfortable with frontal spatial positions (Fisher Byrne, 1975). This difference may account for more or less personal space between males and females. Numerous studies concluded that females have smaller zones of personal space compared to males (Altman, 1975; Edney, Walker, Jordan, 1976; Fisher, 1975). On the other hand, several studies have also found no significant results at all (Greenberg, Aronow, Rauchway, 1977; Heckel Hiers, 1977; Schneider Hansvick, 1977; Rustemli, 1988). The two conclusions contradict one another. The question remains as to whether significant results concerning sex differences and personal space actually exist. Lerner, Venning, and Knapp (1975) conducted a study on the age and sex effects on personal space. In a sample of children, between kindergarten and sixth grade, it was found that significant sex effects were apparent. The sex effects that were found included the need for females to require more space from males and less space from females. Additionally, it was found that males require more space from females and less from males (Lerner, Venning, Knapp, 1975). One reason for this effect might be the age of the participants. Nevertheless, it suggests that each sex has personal space requirements. The boundary of personal space expands and contracts in diverse situations. In a study conducted by Schwarzwald, Kavish, Shoham, and Waysman (1977), it was found that under fear arousal conditions, personal space contracts. This finding coincides with Altman’s (1975) third property of personal space, which states that the invisible boundary adjusts to different situations. The experiment was performed in a laboratory setting. Participants were told that a galvanic skin response apparatus was going to check for changes. In the fear arousal condition, participants were told that the changes would be measured via electric shocks which may cause some pain or discomfort. Participants in the condition without fear arousal were also told that the changes would be measured via shocks, but were not told they would cause pain or discomfort. The participants in both conditions were told there were two stages in the process, and that they could wait in a waiting room for the next stage. U pon entering the waiting room, a confederate would appear to be waiting for their second stage in the experiment. The participant would have to pick up an overturned chair and place it anywhere to sit down. The distance recorded was between the confederate and the participant. The results showed that the influence of fear arousal on either sex influenced them to move toward someone of the same sex. Also, in a non fear induced condition, males had a tendency to be closer to a female (Schwarzwald, et al., 1977). Rustemli (1988) conducted an experiment on the effects of personal space invasion on impressions, decisions, and comfort. It should also be noted that the technique used in this study was unusual. The participants were told that the purpose of the investigation was to study the interview technique as a selection procedure. In the non-invasion condition, the interviewee (confederate) placed their chair between 100 cm and 120 cm from the interviewer (participant). Conversely, in the invasion condition, the interviewee placed their chair at approximately 10 cm between their feet and the interviewer’s feet. During the interview, a set of 12 questions would be asked by the interviewer and the interviewee would respond with rehearsed answers. After the interview was over, the participant (interviewer) would fill out an evaluation sheet. The sheet measured impressions with 20 bipolar adjectives, then it measured decisions through a 7 point scale where 1 is yes I would hire them and 7 is no I would not hire them. The sheet also measured feelings about the interview situation as a whole by asking how comfortable they were and to what degree were they comfortable. There was no variation to be found on distance manipulation upon impressions and decisions. Both male and female subjects had equally positive reactions. Conversely, male invaders produced more discomfort than female invaders. The study was conducted in Turkey, so one reason for this result may be cultural. Men may seem more threatening because they have more power and higher status (Rustemli, 1988). Buchanan and colleagues (1977) conducted a study on the violation of personal space and whether eye contact or sex had an effect upon it. Three different experiments were conducted. In the first experiment, either 2 male or 2 female confederates occupied an elevator. As a participant would step onto the elevator, one confederate would gaze at them while the other stared at the control panel. Since it was possible for the non-gazing confederate to make eye contact peripherally, experiment two was performed. This experiment was the same as the first with the exception that one confederate had there back to the control panel while reading a newspaper. In experiment 3, there was one male and one female occupying the elevator, and both were making eye contact with whoever got on it. Males were found to have no preference towards either sex regardless of any eye contact. On the other hand, females chose to invade the space of another female who was making eye contact whether the other pers on was a female or a male. One explanation for this may be that females tend to engage in more mutual glances than men (Buchanan, Goldman, Juhnke, 1977). In a study conducted by Uzzell and Horne (2006), it was found that there were some sex differences in interpersonal distance. However, the most significant differences were found in gender roles. They proposed that sex does not have a distinctive role to play in explaining interpersonal distance. Nevertheless, they recognized that gender roles have been highly correlated with sex; therefore, sex can not be ruled out completely (Uzzell Horne, 2006). Sex refers to the biological parts of a person, while gender refers to a social and cultural construction specifying how men and women should behave. There has been an escalating dissociation between sex and gender among society in recent years. As a result, it has made it more acceptable for women to assert at least some masculine traits and characteristics and for men to assert at least some feminine traits and characteristics. Whereas sex has become more polarized, gender exists along a continuum. Hence, it would be inappropriate to assume sex and gender to be the same (Uzzell Horne, 2006). These findings may have some inevitable methodological limitations in the study of interpersonal distance. The three different methodologies that have been used to examine discrepancies in personal distances include projective, laboratory, and observation. Projective procedures entail asking participants to hypothetically imagine a circumstance, and then indicate how they think they or another person would react spatially in that situation (Uzzell Horne, 2006). After reviewing the studies using this technique, Hayduk (1983) concluded that it had no credibility. It has a number of obvious flaws such as needing complex cognitive skills like reconstruction, imagination, empathy, and memory demands. Laboratory measures have also been utilized frequently. The ‘stopdistance’ method has been the most common laboratory method. The experimenter would ask one participant to enter a room and approach another participant until the point when they start feeling uncomfortable with the other person’s proximity. On the other hand, the ‘approach distance’ method would be used in a similar way. The participants would be asked to move towards another person and specify when they stop feeling comfortable. Two of the advantages to laboratory studies would be that they could be easily administered, and by arranging the setting to look like, for example, an office, the experiment could have some degree of ecological validity. The third methodology, observation, has the most ecological validity since it involves directly observing people interacting with each other in real situations and, if possible, by unobtrusive means. The observation method also conveys awareness to the most practical obscurity in the accurate measurement of interpersonal distances. The observation method includes two subtypes which attempt to be inconspicuous and field-based. The first subtype would be mostly a naturalistic, unobtrusive, and uncontrolled observation which would reflect people interacting in a real-world setting. The second subtype would be staged invasions or blocked access in natural settings. In both subtypes, either unsuspecting participants would be approached by a confederate or the paths of people would be blocked by confederates and the reactions examined. Two of the problems with each of these techniques have been ecological validity and the accuracy of measurement. Observation studies as well as laboratory studies have not been able to agree on accurate measurements of interpersonal distance. Since variations in interpersonal distances have been minimal, it would be important to be accurate. The purpose of the current study will be to look at observational research of interpersonal distance between males and females. Nearly all studies on interpersonal distance look more at social interaction than at the actual physical distance which makes this study somewhat novel. Nevertheless, we predict that the furthest distance will be between two males, next between a female approaching a male, then between a male approaching a female, and the closest distance will be between two females. Method Design A 4 X 4 between subjects research design would be used in this study. The two independent variables observed will be sex and accessories. Sex would have four levels recorded as female to male, male to female, male to male, or female to female. There would be four levels for accessories recorded as presence of a backpack, presence of a lunch tray, presence of both a lunch tray and a backpack, and the absence of a lunch tray and a backpack. The dependent variable would be the distance between the participant and the confederate. Participants One hundred undergraduate students at the University of Alabama will be observed in food lines at the Ferguson Center Food Court. Participants should vary with respect to sex and race. The sex of the students in this study should consist of roughly half males and half females. Since the study will be conducted at a University, most of the participants would probably be around the same age. Professors, staff, and non-University of Alabama undergraduates should not be included. Materials All data would be collected with pen and paper. A data sheet would be constructed with various categories to ease the collection process and allow more focus on the college students. The data sheet would consist of five categories listed in columns. The first category would be labeled ‘sex of participant’ which has two options: male or female. The second column would be labeled ‘sex of confederate’ which also has two options: male or female. The next column would be labeled ‘accessory’ which has four options: presence of a backpack, presence of a lunch tray, presence of both a lunch tray and a backpack, and the absence of a lunch tray and a backpack. The fourth column would be labeled ‘other’ and could be used to record either the race of each participant or other potential variables. The last column would be labeled ‘distance’ and would be used to record how far the participant moved when his or her personal space was invaded upon in line by the confederate. Procedure First of all, in order to help prevent observer bias, the observers would have no knowledge of the research hypotheses. They would also be trained on the method of measuring to aid the interobserver reliability. The observers and confederates would arrive at the Ferguson Center Food Court around noon since that would be the busiest time of day and as a result would lower reactivity. One individual will act as the observer and the other will act as the confederate. In order to promote fairness and to help provide a representative sample, one researcher should be female and the other male. The observer should stay within ten feet of the confederate and the presumed participant. This ought to be a safe distance and help the observer blend in with the crowd. Before the confederate invades the participant’s personal space, the observer should note the sex, race, and accessories of the participant. Then, with a head nod, the confederate could begin to invade the personal space of the person in line. The participant in line may move forward, away from the confederate, or remain in the same position to keep from interfering with someone else’s personal space. The observer would estimate the distance in feet and record it on the data sheet. After 50 participants had been entered on the data sheet, the researchers should switch places. Discussion The prediction for the present study was that the furthest distance will be between two males, next between a female approaching a male, then between a male approaching a female, and the closest distance would be between two females. These results were based upon previous research which supported the hypothesis that females have the shortest distance of personal space with another female (Buchanan, Goldman, Juhnke, 1977; Schwarzwald, et al., 1977; Lerner, Venning, Knapp, 1975). The prediction that two males would be the farthest apart was derived from societal expectations and homophobic tendencies. Society expects males to lack emotion and be strong. Conversely, society expects females to be emotional and passive. Males tend to perceive the closeness of another male as threatening to their manhood. Therefore, the furthest amount of interpersonal distance should be found between two males. A female approaching a male was predicted to have more distance than a male approaching a female due to societal expectations as well. A male has been perceived as more dominant, and would be expected to approach a female. On the other hand, a female who approaches a male may be seen as promiscuous. Thus, it seemed appropriate that a female approaching a male would contain more distance than a male approaching a female. One of the limitations of this study would be that it was performed in an uncontrolled setting. However, this could also be viewed as an advantage because it would be in a somewhat natural environment. Another limitation might be in the perception of the actual distance that the participant moved. In a naturalistic setting, it would be difficult to measure precisely how far a person moved without the result of reactivity. Although college students have been frequently used in experiments, it has been questioned whether they can represent the general population. Future research should continue to perfect a way of measuring interpersonal distance. A more reliable method would provide higher validity and reliability. Additionally, more research should be done to focus on the effects of sex on interpersonal distance. References Altman, I. (1975) The Environment and Social Behavior: Privacy, Personal Space, Territory, Crowding. Brooks/Cole Publishing Company, Monterey, CA. Aono, A. (1980). A developmental study of interpersonal distance and bodily orientation in Japan. Japanese Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 19(2), 97-105. Beaulieu, C. (2004). Intercultural study of personal space: A case study. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 34(4), 794-805. Beekman, M. (1986). Interpersonal distance choice and response to distance violation in paranoid and nonparanoid schizophrenic and nonpsychotic inpatients. Dissertation Abstracts International, 46(8-B), 2795. Brown, C. (1981). Shared space invasion and race. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 7(1), 103-108. Buchanan, D., Goldman, M., Juhnke, R. (1977). Eye contact, sex, and the violation of personal space. Journal of Social Psychology, 103(1), 19-25. Carifio, M. (1987). Personal space as a function of violence, race, and control. Dissertation Abstracts International, 47(7-B), 3100. Corsini, Raymond J. (1999). The Dictionary of Psychology. Psychology Press (UK) 501. Edney, J., Walker, C., Jordan, N. (1976). Is there reactance in personal space? Journal of Social Psychology, 100, 207–217. Fisher, J. Byrne, D. (1975). Too close for comfort: Sex differences in response to invasions of personal space. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 32(1), 15-21. Greenberg, E., Aronow, E., Rauchway, A. (1977). Inkblot content and interpersonal distance. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 33(3), 882-887. Hayduk, L. (1978). Personal space: An evaluative and orienting view. Psychological Bulletin. 85(1), 117-134. Hayduk, L. (1983). Personal space: Where we now stand. Psychological Bulletin. 94(2), 293-335. Heckel, R., Hiers, J. (1977). Social distance and locus of control. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 33(2), 469-471. Lerner, R., Venning, J., Knapp, J. (1975). Age and sex effects on personal space schemata toward body build in late childhood. Developmental Psychology, 11(6), 855-856. Nechamkin, Y., Salganik, I., Modai, I., Ponizovsky, A. (2003).Interpersonal distance in schizophrenic patients: Relationship to negative syndrome. International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 49(3), 165. ONeal, E., Schultz, J., Christenson, T. (1987). The menstrual cycle and personal space. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 11(1), 26-32. Remland, M., Jones, T., Brinkman, H. (1995). Interpersonal distance, body orientation, and touch: Effects of culture, gender, and age. Journal of Social Psychology, 135 (3), 281-297. Rustemli, A. (1988). The effects of personal space invasion on impressions and decisions. Journal of Psychology: Interdisciplinary and Applied, 122(2), 113-118. Schneider, F., Hansvick, C. (1977). Gaze and distance as a function of changes in interpersonal gaze. Social Behavior Personality: An International Journal, 5(1), 49. Schwarzwald, J., Kavish, N., Shoham, M. (1977) Fear and sex-similarity as determinants of personal space. Journal of Psychology: Interdisciplinary and Applied, 96(1), 55-61. Six, B. Martin, P., Pecher, M. (1983). A cultural comparison of perceived crowding and discomfort: The United States and West Germany. Journal of Psychology, 114(1), 63. Uzzell, D. Horne, N. (2006). The influence of biological sex, sexuality and gender role on interpersonal distance. British Journal of Social Psychology, 45(3), 579- 597. Yagoda, L. (1982). Interpersonal distance and dependency in children as related to adults and peers. Dissertation Abstracts International, 43(1-B), 238. Research Papers on Spatial Differences Between Males and FemalesThe Relationship Between Delinquency and Drug UseResearch Process Part OneEffects of Television Violence on ChildrenIncorporating Risk and Uncertainty Factor in CapitalThree Concepts of PsychodynamicInfluences of Socio-Economic Status of Married MalesAnalysis Of A Cosmetics AdvertisementComparison: Letter from Birmingham and CritoUnreasonable Searches and SeizuresMarketing of Lifeboy Soap A Unilever Product

greenhouse gas effect essay Essays

greenhouse gas effect essay Essays greenhouse gas effect essay Essay greenhouse gas effect essay Essay Greenhouse Gas The greenhouse gas effect is the number one blame for global warming. We could not live without the greenhouse effect. The main gases are ozone, nitrous oxide, carbon dioxide, methane, and water vapor. These reflected rays, called infrared radiation , keeps the atmosphere warm. They are vital in maintaining the balance in our atmosphere. The greenhouse effect is mostly a result of the sunlights energy and the clouds that absorb and reflect heat. Without the greenhouse effect, earth would be less than 33 degrees Celsius cooler. Human activity increased the percentage of gas, which increased the temperature. Population growth is one of the major causes. With the increase of population, the needs and wants increase. The more demands of the people, the more the industry has to help our needs. As the industry grows, so does the gas used to keep their work going. The uses of electrical appliances are even a contributing factor. Even the humble efrigerator in the house emits gas, gas known as chlorofluorocarbon (CFCs) are used in fridges, as well as aerosol cans, foam in packaging, fire extinguisher chemicals, and cleaners. Everything we use effects the air we breathe. Burning of fossils contributes too. Burning of fossil fuels, oils, coal, and gas, releases chemicals into the atmosphere. The most common fossil fuels are used in the industry business. Some of the gases can last longer in the air then others. The gases can increase global warming. : These gases are not natural. The man made cause of the greenhouse effect is deforestation. Due to the lack of trees, photosynthesis cannot take place. With the cutting down of trees the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases. The decay of the trees also causes the carbon to increase. We need the greenhouse effect to live in our world successfully. Each factor can make up a balance that we have to survive. There is too much of a good thing though. That is why we need to balance everything out to succeed.

A Guide to Business English Collocations

A Guide to Business English Collocations Business English collocations are common combinations of words used when speaking about business in English. Collocations can be understood as words that usually go together. For example, in English we do business, not make business. That business English collocation can make all the difference if you are trying to do business around the world. When decisions concern a lot of money, its important to get the phrase right.   Here are common business English collocations used in various business operations:   The Verb To Do Accounts: Mary does the accounts in bookkeeping.Business: We do business with countries around the world.Deals:  We did a deal with them last year.Due diligence:  Lets do our due diligence before we begin the project.Paperwork: First we have to do the paperwork.Research: Lets do some research on the subject. The Verb To Make An appointment: I made an appointment with the sales manager for next week.A calculation:  She has to make a calculation before she decides whether to approve.Cutbacks:  The company made cutbacks at their stores in New York.A deal: We made a deal with our competitor.An investment: The CEO  made an investment in a new factory.A loan:  The bank made us a loan of $750,000.Money:  The company made a lot of money in the last year.A profit: We  made a good profit on the deal. The Verb To Manage A business or factory: He manages two stores in California.Expectations:  Always manage your expectations during contract negotiations.A project or a team:  Susan is managing five projects at the same time. The VerbsTo Operate or To Run An airline: The company operates/runs an airline in Brazil.A facility:  We operate/run facilities in Germany and Japan.A service: We operate/run a tourist service in Boulder, Colorado. The Noun Deal Cut a deal: We cut a deal with our competition.Do a deal:  The company did a deal in Los Angeles.Give someone a deal:  Let me give you a deal on a new car.Close a deal:  Jake closed the deal yesterday. Hes celebrating today.Work on a deal:  Were working on a deal with a new client. The Noun Contract Write/draw up a contract: Lets write up a new contract for next year. Sign a contract:  Make sure to read it carefully before you sign any contract.Negotiate a contract: Accepting a first offer is no way to negotiate a contract.Offer someone a contract: Wed like to offer you a contract with our company.Bid on a contract: Were bidding on three contracts at the moment. Adjectives Modifying Customer Long-time customer: We treat our long-time customers with great respect and even better deals.Regular customer: Hes a regular customer. He comes in every Friday afternoon.Prospective customer:  Hes pitching the project to a prospective customer.Paying customer:  The only customer we need is a paying customer.Domestic/international customer: We have both domestic and international customers.

Homework Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 8

Homework - Essay Example Mays (2004), makes clear that â€Å"The war affected rich and poor, North and South, black and white† (p.30). From a different angle of view, wartime experiences helped the people to realize the hardships to be faced to gain freedom. Besides, wartime experiences helped the people to provide less consideration to class difference and to unite and fight for a noble aim. Moreover, difference in social status did not hinder the people to fight against injustice in the mainstream society. One can see that the leadership of the American Revolution was fully vested upon the patriots or the farmers. In short, the wartime experiences helped the people in the colonies to realize the importance of social and political freedom. The American Revolution helped the women in the American colonies to play active role in the mainstream society. For instance, Housespun Movement (say, boycotting British goods) was initiated by the women in America. In short, the American Revolution helped the wom en to gain social status and active role in the mainstream society. Most of the slaves in America, especially the African Americans, joined the revolutionaries and fought against the British troops. Besides, some slaves managed to escape from slavery and began to enjoy freedom. In short, American Revolution instilled hope among the slaves. On the other side, most of the natives considered that the British colonizers may help them to regain their land and they joined the British side. This decision proved to be destructive to the native population in America. Summing, the wartime experiences helped the people of America to realize the importance of social and political freedom in the society. Besides, American Revolution helped the women to enter the public domain and helped the slaves to feel positive about their future. On the other side, the American Revolution was not helpful for the natives in America. In short, the

Shakespeare's Hamlet Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Shakespeare's Hamlet - Research Paper Example In the process, he is involved in several occasions of double mind which puts him at a cross road in some instances (Hapgood & Shakespeare, 24). In the process he causes the deaths of several characters in the play either directly or indirectly (Shakespeare, 114). He also plays an indirect role in the death of his love Ophelia and his mother whom he mistakenly poisoned with food. However throughout the play and in Hamlet actions, he shows sense of double-mindedness as he struggles with his internal thoughts and efforts to sanity. The first instance in which Hamlet shows inability to decide on one issue is when he was not able to decide on whether you revenge or not. It is evident in the play that Hamlet is seeking the truth about his father’s death and hence believe that from that truth, he would be able to reach to the killers of his father. Generally, hamlet is seeking for truth as an effort to justify his acts of revenge (Bradley, 84). However, it is important to realize th at these acts of revenge are called for by the ghost which he does not trust. In this context, Hamlet has double minds as to whether to believe the ghost of his father or whether to reject such believes. As outlined by Bradley (85), â€Å"this is the tragedy of a man who could not make up his mind.† This is recognition of Hamlet’s views which were divided equally and the possibility in acting in one way or the other was half possible. It is important to note that he viewed almost everything in two perspectives and hence it was difficult to decide the way to go. According to Rosenberg (440), Hamlet can be described as an individual who knows all that he wants and all that according to him would be right. However, Hamlet deliberately decides to avoid the right thing. This perspective of Hamlet is also observed by Rosenberg (441). Failure of his efforts is not linked in any way to the inability to act but on the unwillingness to act swiftly and at the right time to save t he community. Hamlet is also divided in the mind whether to revenge or not because he fears the spirits and not because he cannot revenge (Furness & Shakespeare, 24). He is very much aware that he has defied the ghost and hence he tries to assert that the spirits of the dead are more dangerous and may follow him. While Hamlet tries to find out whether he would be right to act in accordance to the ghost request, it is evident that something is ringing at the back of his mind that he has not done what he is supposed to do. It is therefore important to notice that there are two thoughts that are antagonistic in his mind. As a result he is always undecided and hence leads top several mistakes which result into deaths of his relatives. Hamlet is disturbed by the fact that he has not done something that is impressive or aggressive towards his father’s death. As a result, he wants to please his father but wants to confirm the truth about the accusations by the ghost. In this context , Hamlet is at a crossroad with double minds (Rosenberg, 439). He looks at all the alternative actions, weighs them and finds out that they are actually bear the same weight. While he understands the consequence of either action he wants to make the best decision out of the two available decisions. It is therefore important for him to please his father’s ghost at the same time do not want to revenge or what is not tangible or revenge by mistake. Moreover, the lack of action by Hamlet presents to him a lot

Threats Of Electronic Money Transfer Research Paper

Threats Of Electronic Money Transfer - Research Paper Example To attain their objectives, terrorist require financial resources and easy fund transfer transactions to carry out their acts of terror. In this regard, the terrorist has found the Internet the most convenient way for the purpose of communication and coordination with their partners locating in other parts of the world; additionally, they send and receive their funds via using electronic means. This challenge can be minimized to a considerable extent but it can never be wished away totally. In this regard, the role of Central Banks is of critical importance. In the subsequent part of this paper, first, electronic money transfer is defined and is followed by a threat of misuse of this channel by terrorist and international criminal groups. Before conclusion, some suggestions are accounted for to minimize this illegal use of the Internet.An electronic payment system involves the services of many elements. A payment system is identified as the interactions between various subjects and i s made of numerous elements. Among these various elements, system participants, the infrastructure of the system, and the instruments facilitating the transfer of monetary value between different users are the significant elements.Traditionally, we had two parties facilitating fund transfer from one place to another- sender and receiver. Most of the time, funds were transferred with the use of non-electronic means. Paper-based money transfer transactions were common from one financial to another financial institution.... For that purpose, they can go to any extent. To attain their objectives, terrorist require financial resources and easy fund transfer transactions to carry out their acts of terror. In this regard, terrorist have found the Internet the most convenient way for the purpose of communication and coordination with their partners locating in other parts of the world; additionally, they send and receive their funds via using electronic means. This challenge can be minimized to a considerable extent but it can never be wished away totally. In this regard, the role of Central Banks is of critical importance. In the subsequent part of this paper, first, electronic money transfer is defined and is followed by a threat of misuse of this channel by terrorist and international criminal groups. Before conclusion, some suggestions are accounted for to minimize this illegal use of the Internet. An electronic payment system involves the services of many elements. A payment system is identified as the interactions between various subjects and is made of numerous elements. Among these various elements, system participants, the infrastructure of system, and the instruments facilitating the transfer of monetary value between different users are the significant elements(Merlonghi, 2010). Traditionally, we had two parties facilitating fund transfer from one place to another- sender and receiver. Most of the time, funds were transferred with the use of non-electronic means. For that purpose, paper based money transfer transactions were common from one financial to another financial institution. Besides, in paper based transaction time and cost were comparatively more than the costs involved via using electronic way of fund transfer. Due to these facts, the entire system

Business Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Business Analysis - Essay Example Cultural norms influence consumer buying behavior. For instance Chinese culture does not associate kitchen utensil with status symbol. Dishwashers in this country are often viewed as a problem creator, encompassing high costs. Hence the business strategy for this product needs to be inclined towards establishing a strong market position (Pringle, 2008). There is desirable percentage of individuals who belong to middle income group in China. Market penetration strategy shall be most suitable for this particular business idea. Low cost products with superior quality are expected to acquire wider base of customers. Segmentation, targeting and positioning are essential components when it comes to trading in foreign markets. Dishwashers are not a necessity in China. Segmentation for this product will be based on demographic factors such as gender and income group. The main target market for the product would be females, specifically housewives. They might understand the need for this product in terms of making their tasks simpler. Middle income group shall be targeted since product price would be low in initial stages of product launch. Positioning statement of the product will be – ‘an affordable cleaning power at doorstep’. This form of positioning clearly reveals that a product which is not a necessity can still prove to be beneficial for living beings (Wintzer, 2007). Market positioning of dishwashers will be aligned with the concept of low cost and high quality. Global marketing strategy is highly dependent on characteristics of customers. It can be stated that marketing mix elements revolves around customer’s needs in context of foreign market. The four P’s of marketing mix such as product, price, place and promotion shall outline marketing strategy of dishwashers in Chinese market. Product is an innovative mechanical device which cleans dishes or utensils in least time possible. Branded dishwashers are sold at 2174 Yuan or $350 via

Write a 500-750 word essay using exemplification as a method of

Write a 500-750 word using exemplification as a method of development. Include a title page and outline with your - Essay Example Of all the things that I value most, I would say that my own physical wellbeing and the health of my family members would come pretty near the top of my list. If a person is ill, or in pain, then enjoyment of any other benefit is meaningless, because suffering takes away the ability to concentrate on anything else. As the government keeps telling us, medical provision, education, fresh air, clean water and all the trappings of modern society are expensive commodities, and they need to be in place if people are to enjoy good health. Alex is lucky, because he relies on the social support systems that were in place in his environment from the moment when he was born. This inheritance is, however, very far from free because millions of American taxpayers have worked hard to provide them. Alex, on the other hand, is a great believer in getting something for nothing. He is not too proud to rummage in garbage cans, or gatecrash parties and he often turns up when there is food around. He thinks that this is a fine way to avoid the expense of paying for his own existence, and claims that free food tastes better because of the satisfaction he gains from not having paid for it. He is, however, mistaken if he thinks that there is no cost involved in his scrounging strategy. There are people who no longer count him as their friend, because they resent being used as a meal ticket by someone who only takes and never gives anything in return. Real friendship is not free: it costs time, effort, and yes, money, to maintain positive relationships with people. Alex is unwittingly excluding himself from the much richer benefits that committed relationships can bring. Nowadays people need gadgets in order to begin and maintain relationships. Things that used to happen in face to face situations now take place across the internet, often using mobile broadband frequencies. Alex knows very little of this new world because he is too busy mocking the â€Å"geeks† who

The principles and prospect of sustainable design Dissertation

The principles and prospect of sustainable design - Dissertation Example It passes unnoticed precisely because it is perfectly functional and its form flows seamlessly into the surrounding environment. For example, an comfortable chair passes unnoticed simply because it is comfortable and compatible with the human form. A well designed kitchen appliance, even something as simple as a can opener, passes unnoticed precisely when it functions easily and smoothly. At the same time design is intimately linked to the world around it. It is a product of wider technological processes and pervasive artistic influences. Fifty years ago issues around environmental problems largely passed unnoticed. However, in the last thirty years as environmental issues have become of increasing importance and awareness has grown of packaging waste, climate change and other issues design considerations have expanded to encompass environmental issues. More recently, emphasis on environmental issues has been replaced by an emphasis on sustainability. The following discussion will fo cus on the interrelationship between sustainability and design. Initially, the term sustainability will be explored and examined. Then the specific issue of sustainability and design will be analyzed. ... In fact, this proposal will argue that most of the 'sustainable' proposals fro rebuilding New Orleans are not sustainable as they neglect the key socio-cultural aspects of sustainable design. Subsequently, one simple proposal for reconstruction that is truly sustainable economically, environmentally and socio-culturally will be presented. The final section of this proposal will then consider how the specific proposal for sustainable reconstruction in New Orleans can be applied in a wider framework in other parts of the globe (notably the United Kingdom). Sustainability Discussion of the issue of sustainable design will commence with a consideration of the history (etymology) of the word sustain, the root of the term sustainability. According to the Online Etymological Dictionary the root of sustain comes from â€Å"late 13 century, from Old French sustenir "hold up, endure," from Latin sustinere "hold up, support, endure," from sub "up from below" + tenere "to hold".2 Thus, sustaina ble design is design that can be supported or held up by the economy, the environment and society. In the context of design, sustainable designs are those designs that can be supported by the environment. Sustainable designs are designs that do not deplete the resources of the environment, but rather can be supported by them. A short, widely accepted and functional definition of sustainability has existed since at least 1987 when the Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development: Our Common Future (commonly known as the Brundtland Report) was published. The World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) stated, "Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future

Write a 500-750 word essay using exemplification as a method of

Write a 500-750 word using exemplification as a method of development. Include a title page and outline with your - Essay Example Of all the things that I value most, I would say that my own physical wellbeing and the health of my family members would come pretty near the top of my list. If a person is ill, or in pain, then enjoyment of any other benefit is meaningless, because suffering takes away the ability to concentrate on anything else. As the government keeps telling us, medical provision, education, fresh air, clean water and all the trappings of modern society are expensive commodities, and they need to be in place if people are to enjoy good health. Alex is lucky, because he relies on the social support systems that were in place in his environment from the moment when he was born. This inheritance is, however, very far from free because millions of American taxpayers have worked hard to provide them. Alex, on the other hand, is a great believer in getting something for nothing. He is not too proud to rummage in garbage cans, or gatecrash parties and he often turns up when there is food around. He thinks that this is a fine way to avoid the expense of paying for his own existence, and claims that free food tastes better because of the satisfaction he gains from not having paid for it. He is, however, mistaken if he thinks that there is no cost involved in his scrounging strategy. There are people who no longer count him as their friend, because they resent being used as a meal ticket by someone who only takes and never gives anything in return. Real friendship is not free: it costs time, effort, and yes, money, to maintain positive relationships with people. Alex is unwittingly excluding himself from the much richer benefits that committed relationships can bring. Nowadays people need gadgets in order to begin and maintain relationships. Things that used to happen in face to face situations now take place across the internet, often using mobile broadband frequencies. Alex knows very little of this new world because he is too busy mocking the â€Å"geeks† who

World Trade Organization. Origins And Characteristics Essay

World Trade Organization. Origins And Characteristics - Essay Example Simultaneously, 23 countries (11 of which were developing nations) decided to negotiate on tariff reductions and also to adapt some of the ITO rules, these agreements are called the GATT. The ITO remained subject to ratification to be accepted by national legislatures, but the USA denied due to Congress opposition, and thus GATT remained in effect just as the ‘provisional’ agreement. Seven trade rounds were completed under GATT, and trade agreements were initiated which benefited the developing countries without reciprocal offers. The GATT agreements were extended in the Uruguay Round in 1986, under which new areas were added to the services trade and intellectual property rights were included. Furthermore, a new dispute settlement system had to be redesigned and a new trade organization had to be established to replace the provisional GATT. In the year 1995, the ‘Marrakesh Agreement’ established the WTO, and the Uruguay Round agreements were implemented and by 1997 the additional agreements were also implemented which covered the financial services and the telecommunication services. Furthermore, the defining characteristics of the WTO are as follows (Ministry of Commerce and MPDF, 2005, 11-16): Transparency is the primary principle, since business people are most concerned with the environment they operate in. Thus, it is a requirement for the WTO member to publish all laws and regulations transparently which may affect domestic or international trade in any matter. Non-discrimination principle ensures that the goods of any country must not be differentiated against, and therefore no ‘most favored nation’ treatment shall not be provided, and neither the local goods should be discriminated. Progressive trade liberalization principle applies because WTO is not a free-trade organization, therefore a government can increasingly open its market to foreign competition to the extent it finds appropriate, independently of what i s prescribed by the WTO agreements. Special and Differential treatment principle ensures that developing nations receive easier terms and agreements, and thus they are allowed more time for implementation, and the stricter rules applied on the developed nations may be removed from the agreement of the poorer nations, in order to help them take benefit of being WTO members receiving special treatment. b) An imperfect World Trade Organization is better than no world trade organization.  Discuss with reference to ongoing protectionist policies and the impact of these in the relation of developed economies and lesser-developed economies (40 points). WTO is an organization that was formulated to help and benefit its members, its system of rules, principles and obligations are in place to protect its member nations, which also comprises of the economically less powerful nations, since WTO helps governments of such nations to devise programs which trigger economic reform. The multilatera l trade framework of the rules enacted also help nations in domestic policy making, they do not enforce trade policies but help governments in establishing developmental policies which are based on open and competitive markets. Regardless of the initial aim, WTO has been criticized for being unfair and hurting to

Adding Value In Supply Chain Management Commerce Essay

Adding Value In Supply Chain Management Commerce Essay This chapter reviews the relevant literature and starts with discussion on Adding Value in supply chain management with special focus on pharmaceutical industry and to understanding firms supply chain management and competitive advantages. With involved four major points those are Challenges, Collaboration and Planning High performance delivery, Integration Implementation. Following there is a discussion on theoretical framework on supply chain management, role of top management and overview of latest supply chain management systems. In the last this chapter conclude with summary. 2.1 Adding Value in supply chain management: First question arise that what is Value adding in supply chain? Base on literature review value adding is the difference between input cost and output value (Hines, 2004, p.224). Value added along supply chain takes the form of tangible goods added and intangible services supplied (Hines, 2004). Value added notify to any additional value created at a particular stage of service by key service factors including; tangible value added through material transformation, labour and captical goods and intangible value added through capital and building of collaborative relationships. Firms can add value in many ways, like improve supply method from current level to higher level which is also part of add value in supply chain. Value adding resources within a supply chain are the tangible (processes). Intangible capabilities of a firm (firm attributes, firm controlled information, knowledge and collaborative relationships) enhance efficiency and effectiveness (Cunningham, 1995). By reviewing literature, the value chain concept was developed and popularized in 1985 by Michael Porter in Competitive Advantage. Porter defined value as the amount buyers or customers are willing to pay for what a firm provides, and he visualized the value chain as the arrangement of nine basic values to customers. Porter linked up the value chains between firms to form what he mentioned a value system; now in present era of globalisation and collaboration the link between two firms creating value process called the value chain. As value chain name involves the interpedently processes that generate value of products and the resulting demand and funds flows that are created. According to the Martin Christopher value chain activities can be categorized into two types primary activities (Inbound logistics, operations, outbound logistics, marketing and sales and services) and support activities (Infrastructure, human resource management, technology development and procurement) (Christo pher, 2005). From the literature review, author suggests that first, we need to understand the physical resources that are required within a supply chain to create and deliver a finished service to a customer. Second, we must understand the exchange relationship between particular supply chain resources and the flow of revenue in the value chain. Third, we must also understand what it is about the ownership and control of particular supply chain resources that allows certain resources to command more of the flow of value than others. In understanding this, the process of analytically mapping the properties of power within supply and value chains can commence. To deliver a value, product category and availability is also play important role in supply chain management. By reviewing literature, author understand that alternative perspective of viewing supply chains as value chains identifies economic value as being added through coordinated management of the flow of physical goods and information at each stage of the chain (Davis Stewart, 2004). The theoretical basis for supply chains, Handfield and Nichol (2002, p8), define them as including all organisation and activities associated with the flow and transformation of goods from the materials stage, through to the end user, as well as the associated information flows Information sharing is identified as a key driver for improving supply chain performance and enhancing competitive advantage (Zhang, 2006). Additionally supply chains can be characterised as value system and are defined as a connected series of organisations, resources and knowledge streams involved in the creation and delivery of value to the end customer(Handfield Nichols, 2002, P11). 2.1.2 Companys supply chain management and competitive advantage: Definition of supply chain is the network of organizations that are involved, through upstream and downstream linkages, in the different processes and activities that produce value in the form of products and services delivered to the ultimate consumer (Christopher 1992). In other words, a supply chain consists of multiple firms, both upstream (i.e., supply) and downstream (i.e., distribution), and the ultimate consumer (John T. Mentzer, 2001). The philosophy behind supply-chain management has changed. Previously the central concept was to manage an inventory that acted as a buffer between a limited production capacity and variable customer demands. The scope of the task was interpreted as managing warehouses and transport operations. The current priority is to engineer the supply chain as a seamless whole, breaking down the barriers that have existed between purchasing, production, distribution and sales. These issues are particularly relevant to the pharmaceutical industry. Functions have traditionally operated independently and there has been a consequent sub optimization of the supply chain by fragmenting it along functional lines. In its new form, supply-chain management is a corporate-level task on which several strategic objectives depend, not least ensuring a satisfactory return on capital employed while ensuring the supply of goods and services to designated markets at the service levels demanded. To achieve this, even at a national level, using local facilities to supply local markets is a challenge, requiring close integration of the supply chain and subjugation of functional/ departmental objectives to the needs of the supply chain as a whole. To achieve it globally is much more difficult (Booth, 1996). 2.1.3 Contemporary approaches to achieve competitive advantage: One of the first ideas about theoretical framework for understanding firms performance is Porter (1980). He introduces a strategic and analytical approach to understanding competitive strategy, and said that Every firm competing in an industry has a competitive strategy, whether open or hidden (Porter, 1980). He proposes a framework for analysis industries and competitors and describes three generic strategies, cost leadership, differentiation and focus. He postulates that if a firm is able to do well in any of these strategic fields, It will gain competitive advantage. Porters concept is portraying in below figure. Competitive Advantage of a Firm Generic Competitive strategies Overall cost leadership Differentiation Focus Figure: 2-1: Strategies to achieve competitive advantage: source Porter (1980). -Cost Leadership is most important in competitive pharmaceutical distribution chain, efficient-scale facilities, pursuit of cost reductions, and cost minimization in all areas of the firm. This action can increase companys profit. -Differentiation of product like, different one medicine in different brand (Ports and Blister pack) or service differentiation including design and brand image, customer service, and distribution or dealer network. This action can help increase customer loyalty and ensure often purchase. -Focus on markets, buyers or product line (new line of medicine with its generics version) can help to achieve competitive advantage. The framework of Porter, in fig 2-1 shows, that the proficient strategies can provide competitive advantage. Porter (1980) also argues that competitive advantage comes from the many separate activities a firm achieve in designing, storage, marketing, delivering and creating owns products. Each of this processing contributes to a firms relative cost to position and creates a basis for differentiation. This is the Pharmaceutical logistic value chain, and a firm has to recollection its strategically relevant activities in order to understand the behaviour of costs and the existing and potential sources of differentiation. A company gains competitive advantage by performing these strategically important activities better than its competitors (Porter, 1985). The general value chain concept, and Sigmas existing concept is illustrated in figure 2-2. Supply chain advance Marketing Leadership Advance Primary Activities Profit Margin Support Activities Inbound Sigma House Picking and Customer Marketing Logistics (Warehouse) Assembling Service Tele-sales Procurement Human Resource Management Technology service Development Firm (Sigmas) Infrastructure and Platform Services Figure 2-2: The value chain and Theoretical Framework to achieve competitive Advantage (Adapted from Porter 1985). The definition of supply chain including all basic activities, therefore sales, marketing and customer service activities can be construed as part of the supply chain approach show in the above figure. In company, Tele-sales and marketing processes, such as demand management, order processing and customer relationship building management are included in the internal processes shown in the figure and in the supply chain literature review. However, sales and marketing activity, such as sales calls, advertising and some post delivery support processes are excluded from supply chain activity. This is consistent with the approach taken by the supply chain model it uses to measure supply chain activity (Supply chain council, 2007). There is various types of approaches to achieve competitive advantage, strategic approach, 2.1.4 The strategic Planning approach: In important of porter (1980) approaches, a strategic planning approach that is companys competitive advantage can be planned for this. This includes planning for differentiation in the delivering a value in supply chain, low cost leadership and focus. Strategy is always the product of a complex and unexpected interplay between basic information, personalities and aspiration according to Hamel (1998). What this implies is that one does not gain for obvious solution and strategies but should look at alternatives, challenge assumptions, and look at new ways of delivering superior customer value and firm performance. 2.1.5 Marketing strategy approach: The marketing capabilities approach introduces the concept of capabilities of a market driven organization and explores the links between capabilities and a firms performance and market success (Day, 1999). A firms competitive advantage comes from two sources: Assets or resources, which are acquired over time and distinct capabilities, which are the glue that holds these assets together. Examples are DHLs secure delivery across the globe and Walmarts logistic systems. Such capabilities provide competitive advantage and help organization to deliver a value to its every customer. Other Proponents of the marketing capability approach are cool and Derrick (1989), Aaker (1989), caves and Gale (1987). The concept of capabilities is not new and was proposed much earlier by penrose in 1959. However, this has been popularized as the concept of core competencies of the corporation that can lead to a firms success by Hamel and Prahalad in 1990. They actually propose some tests to measure the st rength and success of core competencies. An example of Federal expresses its packaging and delivery process. The product differentiation approach by Trout (2000), states that what matters is differentiation of product or service, that are too many choice in todays world, and only differentiation provides competitive advantage. In Pharmaceutical business there many manufacture produce a medicine under different choice, keeping all different sort of product and supplying on time will be better advantage over the competitive. 2.1.6 The Introduction of the supply chain approach: In the competitive market of the early decade, there has been a change in management action, resulting for searching strategies that provide superior value to customers. As a result in the supply chain approach to gaining competitive advantage has moved into the frontline of business strategies, especially in developed countries. This approach has its introduced from historical military campaigns (Britannica, 1999) and recently from porter of value chain, with its importance on inbound and outbound logistics, and production operation. In a discussion on marketing logistics thinking argue that logistics has major impact on customer satisfaction, success and costs. They recommend that a firm manage its entire supply chain and that such an approach will add value in existing supply chain within the organization and will help to gain competitive advantage over rival. 2.2 Supply chain Management and factors: 2.2.1 Definition of supply chain and management: It will be helpful to go through some basic definitions of supply chain and management: Supply chain is all inter linked resources and activities needed to create and deliver products and service to customers (Hakanson, 1999). Supply chain management goes advance and including managing supply and demand, resourcing, assembling and packing, distribution across the globe and delivery to the every customer (Supply chain council, 2009). A more on supply chain management is a network of relationships, with the goal to deliver superior value, the management of upper level and lower level relationships with suppliers and customers to deliver best value in services at effective cost to the supply chain as a whole (Christopher, 1998). This definition is a key part of this dissertation in terms of gaining competitive advantage or delivering best value to sigma pharmaceutical customers. 2.2.2 Key areas of Supply chain management system: References Literature Review 1. Christopher, M. (2005). Logistic and supply chain managment. London: FT prentice Hall. 2. Handfield, R. B. Nichols, E. L. (2002) Supply Chain Redesign: Transforming Supply Chains into Integrated Value systems, U.S.A: Prentice Hall. 3. Zhang, C. (2006). Secure Information sharing in Internet-based supply chain management systerms. Coumputer Information Systems , 18-24. 4.